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Single core or dual core?

Victor Kuts

The most significant recent event in the field of microprocessors has been the widespread availability of CPUs equipped with two computing cores. The transition to a dual-core architecture is due to the fact that traditional methods for increasing processor performance have completely exhausted themselves - the process of increasing their clock frequencies has recently stalled.

For example, in the last year before the advent of dual-core processors, Intel was able to increase the frequencies of its CPUs by 400 MHz, and AMD even less - by only 200 MHz. Other methods of improving performance, such as increasing bus speed and cache size, have also lost their former effectiveness. Thus, the introduction of dual-core processors, which have two processor cores in one chip and share the load, has now turned out to be the most logical step on the complex and thorny path of increasing the performance of modern computers.

What is a dual-core processor? In principle, a dual-core processor is an SMP system (Symmetric MultiProcessing; a term denoting a system with several equal processors) and is essentially no different from an ordinary dual-processor system consisting of two independent processors. This way we get all the benefits of dual-processor systems without the need for complex and very expensive dual-processor motherboards.

Before this, Intel had already made an attempt to parallelize the instructions being executed - we are talking about HyperThreading technology, which ensures the division of the resources of one “physical” processor (cache, pipeline, execution units) between two “virtual” processors. The performance gain (in individual applications optimized for HyperThreading) was approximately 10-20%. Whereas a full-fledged dual-core processor, which includes two “honest” physical cores, provides an increase in system performance by 80-90% and even more (naturally, with full use of the capabilities of both of its cores).

The main initiator in the promotion of dual-core processors was AMD, which at the beginning of 2005 released the first dual-core Opteron server processor. As for desktop processors, Intel took the initiative here, announcing the Intel Pentium D and Intel Extreme Edition processors around the same time. True, the announcement of a similar line of Athlon64 X2 processors produced by AMD was only a few days late.

Dual-core Intel processors

The first dual-core Intel Pentium D 8xx processors were based on the Smithfield core, which is nothing more than two Prescott cores combined on one semiconductor chip. An arbiter is also located there, which monitors the state of the system bus and helps to divide access to it between the cores, each of which has its own 1 MB second-level cache. The size of such a crystal, made using a 90-nm process technology, reached 206 square meters. mm, and the number of transistors is approaching 230 million.

For advanced users and enthusiasts, Intel offers Pentium Extreme Edition processors, which differ from the Pentium D by supporting HyperThreading technology (and an unlocked multiplier), due to which they are detected by the operating system as four logical processors. All other functions and technologies of both processors are completely the same. Among them are support for the 64-bit EM64T instruction set (x86-64), energy saving technologies EIST (Enhanced Intel SpeedStep), C1E (Enhanced Halt State) and TM2 (Thermal Monitor 2), as well as the NX-bit information protection function. Thus, the considerable price difference between the Pentium D and Pentium EE processors is largely artificial.

As for compatibility, processors based on the Smithfield core can potentially be installed in any LGA775 motherboard, as long as it meets Intel's requirements for the board's power module.

But the first pancake, as usual, was a disaster - in many applications (most of which are not optimized for multi-threading), dual-core Pentium D processors not only did not outperform single-core Prescott processors running at the same clock frequency, but sometimes even lost to them. Obviously, the problem lies in the interaction of the cores via the Quad Pumped Bus processor bus (when developing the Prescott core, no provision was made for scaling its performance by increasing the number of cores).

To eliminate the shortcomings of the first generation of dual-core Intel processors, processors based on the 65-nm Presler core (two separate Cedar Mill cores located on the same substrate), which appeared at the very beginning of this year, were called upon. A more “fine” technical process made it possible to reduce the area of ​​the cores and their power consumption, as well as increase clock frequencies. Dual-core processors based on the Presler core were called Pentium D with indexes 9xx. If we compare the Pentium D 800 and 900 series processors, in addition to a noticeable reduction in power consumption, the new processors have doubled the second level cache (2 MB per core instead of 1 MB) and support for the promising Vanderpool virtualization technology (Intel Virtualization Technology). In addition, the Pentium Extreme Edition 955 processor was released with HyperThreading technology enabled and operating at a system bus frequency of 1066 MHz.

Officially, processors based on the Presler core with a bus frequency of 1066 MHz are compatible only with motherboards based on the i965 and i975X series chipsets, while the 800 MHz Pentium D in most cases will work on all motherboards that support this bus. But, again, the question arises about the power supply of these processors: the thermal package of the Pentium EE and Pentium D, with the exception of the younger model, is 130 W, which is almost a third more than that of the Pentium 4. According to Intel itself, stable operation of a dual-core system is only possible when using power supplies with a power of at least 400 W.

The most efficient modern desktop dual-core processors from Intel are, without a doubt, Intel Core 2 Duo and Core 2 eXtreme (Conroe core). Their architecture develops the basic principles of the P6 family architecture, however, the number of fundamental innovations is so large that it is time to talk about the new, 8th generation of processor architecture (P8) from Intel. Despite the lower clock frequency, they noticeably outperform the P7 family of processors (NetBurst) in performance in the vast majority of applications - primarily due to an increase in the number of operations performed in each clock cycle, as well as by reducing losses due to the large length of the P7 pipeline.

Desktop processors of the Core 2 Duo line are available in several versions:
- E4xxx series - FSB 800 MHz, 2 MB L2 cache common to both cores;
- E6xxx series - FSB 1066 MHz, cache size 2 or 4 MB;
- X6xxx series (eXtreme Edition) - FSB 1066 MHz, cache size 4 MB.

The letter code "E" indicates the power consumption range from 55 to 75 watts, "X" - above 75 watts. Core 2 eXtreme differs from Core 2 Duo only in its increased clock frequency.

All Conroe processors use a well-developed Quad Pumped Bus and LGA775 socket. Which, however, does not mean compatibility with older motherboards. In addition to supporting 1067 MHz clock speeds, motherboards for new processors must include a new voltage regulation module (VRM 11). These requirements are mainly met by updated versions of motherboards based on Intel 975 and 965 series chipsets, as well as NVIDIA nForce 5xx Intel Edition and ATI Xpress 3200 Intel Edition.

In the next two years, Intel processors of all classes (mobile, desktop and server) will be based on the Intel Core architecture, and the main development will be in the direction of increasing the number of cores on a chip and improving their external interfaces. In particular, for the desktop market, this processor will be Kentsfield - Intel's first quad-core processor for the high-performance desktop PC segment.

Dual-core AMD processors

The AMD Athlon 64 X2 line of dual-core processors uses two cores (Toledo and Manchester) inside a single die, manufactured using a 90 nm process technology using SOI technology. Each of the Athlon 64 X2 cores has its own set of actuators and a dedicated second-level cache; they share a memory controller and a HyperTransport bus controller. The differences between the cores are in the size of the second level cache: Toledo has an L2 cache of 1 MB per core, while Manchester has half that figure (512 KB each). All processors have a 128 KB L1 cache, and their maximum heat dissipation does not exceed 110 W. The Toledo core consists of approximately 233.2 million transistors and has an area of ​​approximately 199 square meters. mm. The Manchester core area is noticeably smaller - 147 square meters. mm., the number of transistors is 157 million.

Dual-core Athlon64 X2 processors inherited from Athlon64 support for Cool`n`Quiet energy saving technology, a set of 64-bit AMD64 extensions, SSE - SSE3, and NX-bit information protection function.

Unlike dual-core Intel processors that work only with DDR2 memory, the Athlon64 X2 is capable of working with both DDR400 memory (Socket 939), which provides a maximum bandwidth of 6.4 GB/s, and DDR2-800 (Socket AM2), whose peak throughput is 12.8 GB/s.

On all fairly modern motherboards, Athlon64 X2 processors work without any problems - unlike the Intel Pentium D, they do not impose any specific requirements on the design of the motherboard power module.

Until very recently, the AMD Athlon64 X2 was considered the most productive among desktop processors, but with the release of Intel Core 2 Duo the situation has changed radically - the latter have become the undisputed leaders, especially in gaming and multimedia applications. In addition, new Intel processors have lower power consumption and much more efficient power management mechanisms.

AMD was not satisfied with this state of affairs, and in response, it announced the release in mid-2007 of a new 4-core processor with an improved microarchitecture, known as the K8L. All its cores will have separate L2 caches of 512 KB each and one common level 3 cache of 2 MB in size (in subsequent versions of the processor the L3 cache can be increased). The promising AMD K8L architecture will be discussed in more detail in one of the upcoming issues of our magazine.

One core or two?

Even a cursory glance at the current state of the desktop processor market indicates that the era of single-core processors is gradually becoming a thing of the past - both of the world's leading manufacturers have switched to producing mainly multi-core processors. However, software, as has happened more than once before, still lags behind the level of hardware development. Indeed, in order to fully utilize the capabilities of several processor cores, the software must be able to “split” into several parallel threads processed simultaneously. Only with this approach does it become possible to distribute the load across all available computing cores, reducing computation time more than could be done by increasing the clock frequency. Whereas the vast majority of modern programs are not able to use all the capabilities provided by dual-core or, especially, multi-core processors.

What types of user applications can be most effectively parallelized, that is, without special processing of the program code, they allow you to select several tasks (program threads) that can be executed in parallel and, thus, load several processor cores with work at once? After all, only such applications provide any noticeable increase in performance from the introduction of multi-core processors.

The greatest benefits from multiprocessing come from applications that initially allow natural parallelization of calculations with data sharing, for example, realistic computer rendering packages - 3DMax and the like. You can also expect good performance gains from multiprocessing in applications that encode multimedia files (audio and video) from one format to another. In addition, 2D image editing tasks in graphic editors like the popular Photoshop lend themselves well to parallelization.

It is not for nothing that applications of all the categories listed above are widely used in tests when they want to show the advantages of Hyper-Threading virtual multiprocessing. And there’s nothing to say about real multiprocessing.

But in modern 3D gaming applications one should not expect any significant speed increase from multiple processors. Why? Because a typical computer game cannot be easily parallelized into two or more processes. Therefore, the second logical processor, at best, will only perform auxiliary tasks, which will provide virtually no performance gain. And developing a multi-threaded version of a game from the very beginning is quite complex and requires considerable labor - sometimes much more than creating a single-threaded version. These labor costs, by the way, may not yet pay off from an economic point of view. After all, computer game manufacturers traditionally focus on the most widespread part of users and begin to use new capabilities of computer hardware only if it is widespread. This is clearly seen in the use of video card capabilities by game developers. For example, after new video chips with support for shader technologies appeared, game developers ignored them for a long time, focusing on the capabilities of stripped-down mass solutions. So even advanced players who bought the most “sophisticated” video cards of those years never received normal games that used all their capabilities. A roughly similar situation with dual-core processors is observed today. Today there are not many games that even really use HyperThreading technology, despite the fact that mass processors with its support have been in full production for several years now.

In office applications the situation is not so clear. First of all, programs of this class rarely work alone - a much more common situation is when several office applications running in parallel are running on the computer. For example, a user is working with a text editor, and at the same time a website is loading into the browser, and scanning for viruses is carried out in the background. Obviously, having multiple applications running allows you to easily use multiple processors and get a performance boost. Moreover, all versions of Windows XP, including Home Edition (which was initially denied support for multi-core processors), are already able to take advantage of dual-core processors by distributing program threads between them. Thus ensuring high efficiency in the execution of numerous background programs.

Thus, we can expect some effect even from unoptimized office applications if they are run in parallel, but it is difficult to understand whether such a performance increase is worth the significant increase in the cost of a dual-core processor. In addition, a certain disadvantage of dual-core processors (especially the Intel Pentium D processors) is that applications whose performance is limited not by the processing power of the processor itself, but by the speed of memory access, may not benefit as much from having multiple cores.

Conclusion

There is no doubt that the future definitely belongs to multi-core processors, but today, when most of the existing software is not optimized for new processors, their advantages are not as obvious as manufacturers try to show in their promotional materials. Yes, a little later, when there is a sharp increase in the number of applications that support multi-core processors (primarily this concerns 3D games, in which new generation CPUs will help significantly relieve the graphics system), purchasing them will be advisable, but now... It has long been known that that buying processors “for growth” is far from the most effective investment.

On the other hand, progress is rapid, and for a normal person changing a computer every year is, perhaps, overkill. Thus, all owners of fairly modern systems based on single-core processors should not worry too much in the near future - your systems will still be “at par” for some time, while for those who are planning to purchase a new computer, we would still recommend its attention to relatively inexpensive low-end models of dual-core processors.

* There are always pressing questions about what you should pay attention to when choosing a processor, so as not to make a mistake.

Our goal in this article is to describe all the factors affecting processor performance and other operational characteristics.

It's probably no secret that the processor is the main computing unit of a computer. You could even say – the most important part of the computer.

It is he who processes almost all processes and tasks that occur in the computer.

Be it watching videos, music, Internet surfing, writing and reading in memory, processing 3D and video, games. And much more.

Therefore, to choose C central P processor, you should treat it very carefully. It may turn out that you decide to install a powerful video card and a processor that does not correspond to its level. In this case, the processor will not reveal the potential of the video card, which will slow down its operation. The processor will be fully loaded and literally boiling, and the video card will wait its turn, working at 60-70% of its capabilities.

That is why, when choosing a balanced computer, Not costs neglect the processor in favor of a powerful video card. The processor power must be enough to unleash the potential of the video card, otherwise it’s just wasted money.

Intel vs. AMD

*catch up forever

Corporation Intel, has enormous human resources and almost inexhaustible finances. Many innovations in the semiconductor industry and new technologies come from this company. Processors and developments Intel, on average by 1-1,5 years ahead of the engineers' achievements AMD. But as you know, you have to pay for the opportunity to have the most modern technologies.

Processor pricing policy Intel, is based both on number of cores, amount of cache, but also on "freshness" of architecture, performance per clockwatt,chip process technology. The meaning of cache memory, the “subtleties of the technical process” and other important characteristics of the processor will be discussed below. For the possession of such technologies as well as a free frequency multiplier, you will also have to pay an additional amount.

Company AMD, unlike the company Intel, strives for the availability of its processors for the end consumer and for a competent pricing policy.

One could even say that AMD– « People's stamp" In its price tags you will find what you need at a very attractive price. Usually a year after the company has a new technology Intel, an analogue of technology appears from AMD. If you are not chasing the highest performance and pay more attention to the price tag than to the availability of advanced technologies, then the company's products AMD– just for you.

Price policy AMD, is based more on the number of cores and very little on the amount of cache memory and the presence of architectural improvements. In some cases, for the opportunity to have third-level cache memory, you will have to pay a little extra ( Phenom has a 3 level cache memory, Athlon content with only limited, level 2). But sometimes AMD spoils his fans possibility to unlock cheaper processors to more expensive ones. You can unlock the cores or cache memory. Improve Athlon before Phenom. This is possible thanks to the modular architecture and the lack of some cheaper models, AMD simply disables some blocks on the chip of more expensive ones (software).

Cores– remain practically unchanged, only their number differs (true for processors 2006-2011 years). Due to the modularity of its processors, the company does an excellent job of selling rejected chips, which, when some blocks are turned off, become a processor from a less productive line.

The company has been working for many years on a completely new architecture under the code name Bulldozer, but at the time of release in 2011 year, the new processors did not show the best performance. AMD I blamed the operating systems for not understanding the architectural features of dual cores and “other multithreading.”

According to company representatives, you should wait for special fixes and patches to experience the full performance of these processors. However, at the beginning 2012 year, company representatives postponed the release of an update to support the architecture Bulldozer for the second half of the year.

Processor frequency, number of cores, multi-threading.

During times Pentium 4 and before him - CPU frequency, was the main processor performance factor when selecting a processor.

This is not surprising, because processor architectures were specially developed to achieve high frequencies, and this was especially reflected in the processor Pentium 4 on architecture NetBurst. High frequency was not effective with the long pipeline that was used in the architecture. Even Athlon XP frequency 2GHz, in terms of productivity was higher than Pentium 4 c 2.4 GHz. So it was pure marketing. After this error, the company Intel realized my mistakes and returned to the side of good I started working not on the frequency component, but on performance per clock. From architecture NetBurst I had to refuse.

What same for us gives multi-core?

Quad-core processor with frequency 2.4 GHz, in multi-threaded applications, will theoretically be the approximate equivalent of a single-core processor with a frequency 9.6 GHz or 2-core processor with frequency 4.8 GHz. But that's only in theory. Practically However, two dual-core processors in a two-socket motherboard will be faster than one 4-core processor at the same operating frequency. Bus speed limitations and memory latency take their toll.

* subject to the same architecture and amount of cache memory

Multi-core makes it possible to perform instructions and calculations in parts. For example, you need to perform three arithmetic operations. The first two are executed on each of the processor cores and the results are added to the cache memory, where the next action can be performed with them by any of the free cores. The system is very flexible, but without proper optimization it may not work. Therefore, optimization for multi-cores is very important for processor architecture in an OS environment.

Applications that "love" and use multithreading: archivers, video players and encoders, antiviruses, defragmenter programs, graphic editor, browsers, Flash.

Also, “lovers” of multithreading include such operating systems as Windows 7 And Windows Vista, as well as many OS kernel based Linux, which work noticeably faster with a multi-core processor.

Most games, sometimes a 2-core processor at a high frequency is quite enough. Now, however, more and more games are being released that are designed for multi-threading. Take at least these SandBox games like GTA 4 or Prototype, in which on a 2-core processor with a frequency lower 2.6 GHz– you don’t feel comfortable, the frame rate drops below 30 frames per second. Although in this case, most likely the reason for such incidents is “weak” optimization of games, lack of time or “indirect” hands of those who transferred games from consoles to PC.

When buying a new processor for gaming, you should now pay attention to processors with 4 or more cores. But still, you should not neglect 2-core processors from the “upper category”. In some games, these processors sometimes feel better than some multi-core ones.

Processor cache memory.

is a dedicated area of ​​the processor chip in which intermediate data between processor cores, RAM and other buses is processed and stored.

It runs at a very high clock speed (usually at the frequency of the processor itself), has very high bandwidth and the processor cores work directly with it ( L1).

Because of her shortage, the processor can be idle in time-consuming tasks, waiting for new data to arrive in the cache for processing. Also cache memory serves for records of frequently repeated data that, if necessary, can be quickly restored without unnecessary calculations, without forcing the processor to waste time on them again.

Performance is also enhanced by the fact that the cache memory is unified, and all cores can equally use data from it. This provides additional opportunities for multi-threaded optimization.

This technique is now used for Level 3 cache. For processors Intel there were processors with unified level 2 cache memory ( C2D E 7***,E 8***), thanks to which this method appeared to increase multi-threaded performance.

When overclocking a processor, the cache memory can become a weak point, preventing the processor from being overclocked beyond its maximum operating frequency without errors. However, the advantage is that it will run at the same frequency as the overclocked processor.

In general, the larger the cache memory, the faster CPU. In which applications exactly?

All applications that use a lot of floating point data, instructions, and threads make heavy use of the cache memory. Cache memory is very popular archivers, video encoders, antiviruses And graphic editor etc.

A large amount of cache memory is favorable games. Especially strategies, auto-simulators, RPGs, SandBox and all games where there are a lot of small details, particles, geometry elements, information flows and physical effects.

Cache memory plays a very important role in unlocking the potential of systems with 2 or more video cards. After all, some part of the load falls on the interaction of processor cores, both among themselves and for working with streams of several video chips. It is in this case that the organization of cache memory is important, and a large level 3 cache memory is very useful.

Cache memory is always equipped with protection against possible errors ( ECC), if detected, they are corrected. This is very important, because a small error in the memory cache, when processed, can turn into a gigantic, continuous error that will crash the entire system.

Proprietary technologies.

(hyper-threading, HT)–

the technology was first used in processors Pentium 4, but it didn’t always work correctly and often slowed down the processor more than it speeded it up. The reason was that the pipeline was too long and the branch prediction system was not fully developed. Used by the company Intel, there are no analogues of the technology yet, unless you consider it an analogue? what the company’s engineers implemented AMD in architecture Bulldozer.

The principle of the system is that for each physical core, one two computing threads, instead of one. That is, if you have a 4-core processor with HT (Core i 7), then you have virtual threads 8 .

The performance gain is achieved due to the fact that data can enter the pipeline already in the middle of it, and not necessarily at the beginning. If some processor blocks capable of performing this action are idle, they receive the task for execution. The performance gain is not the same as that of real physical cores, but comparable (~50-75%, depending on the type of application). It is quite rare that in some applications, HT negatively affects for performance. This is due to poor optimization of applications for this technology, the inability to understand that there are “virtual” threads and the lack of limiters for the load of threads evenly.

TurboBoost – a very useful technology that increases the operating frequency of the most used processor cores, depending on their load level. It is very useful when the application does not know how to use all 4 cores and loads only one or two, while their operating frequency increases, which partially compensates for performance. The company has an analogue of this technology AMD, is technology Turbo Core.

, 3 dnow! instructions. Designed to speed up the processor in multimedia computing (video, music, 2D/3D graphics, etc.), and also speed up the work of programs such as archivers, programs for working with images and video (with the support of instructions from these programs).

3dnow! – quite old technology AMD, which contains additional instructions for processing multimedia content, in addition to SSE first version.

*Specifically, the ability to stream process single-precision real numbers.

Having the latest version is a big plus; the processor begins to perform certain tasks more efficiently with proper software optimization. Processors AMD have similar names, but slightly different.

* Example - SSE 4.1(Intel) - SSE 4A(AMD).

In addition, these instruction sets are not identical. These are analogues with slight differences.

Cool'n'Quiet, SpeedStep CoolCore Enchanted Half State(C1E) AndT. d.

These technologies, at low loads, reduce the processor frequency by reducing the multiplier and core voltage, disabling part of the cache, etc. This allows the processor to heat up much less, consume less energy, and make less noise. If power is needed, the processor will return to its normal state in a split second. On standard settings Bios They are almost always turned on; if desired, they can be disabled to reduce possible “freezes” when switching in 3D games.

Some of these technologies control the rotation speed of fans in the system. For example, if the processor does not need increased heat dissipation and is not loaded, the processor fan speed is reduced ( AMD Cool'n'Quiet, Intel Speed ​​Step).

Intel Virtualization Technology And AMD Virtualization.

These hardware technologies make it possible, using special programs, to run several operating systems at once, without any significant loss in performance. It is also used for the proper operation of servers, because often more than one OS is installed on them.

Execute Disable Bit AndNo eXecute Bit – technology designed to protect a computer from virus attacks and software errors that can cause the system to crash through buffer overflow.

Intel 64 , AMD 64 , EM 64 T – this technology allows the processor to work both in an OS with a 32-bit architecture and in an OS with a 64-bit architecture. System 64 bit– from the point of view of benefits, for the average user it differs in that this system can use more than 3.25GB of RAM. On 32-bit systems, use b O A larger amount of RAM is not possible due to the limited amount of addressable memory*.

Most applications with 32-bit architecture can be run on a system with a 64-bit OS.

* What can you do if back in 1985, no one could even think about such gigantic, by the standards of that time, volumes of RAM.

Additionally.

A few words about.

This point is worth paying close attention to. The thinner the technical process, the less energy the processor consumes and, as a result, the less it heats up. And among other things, it has a higher safety margin for overclocking.

The more refined the technical process, the more you can “wrap” in a chip (and not only) and increase the capabilities of the processor. Heat dissipation and power consumption are also reduced proportionally, due to lower current losses and a reduction in core area. You can notice a tendency that with each new generation of the same architecture on a new technological process, energy consumption also increases, but this is not the case. It’s just that manufacturers are moving towards even greater productivity and are stepping beyond the heat dissipation line of the previous generation of processors due to an increase in the number of transistors, which is not proportional to the reduction in the technical process.

Built into the processor.

If you don't need a built-in video core, then you shouldn't buy a processor with it. You will only get worse heat dissipation, extra heating (not always), worse overclocking potential (not always), and overpaid money.

In addition, those cores that are built into the processor are only suitable for loading the OS, surfing the Internet and watching videos (and not of any quality).

Market trends are still changing and the opportunity to buy a powerful processor from Intel Without a video core, it drops out less and less. The policy of forced imposition of the built-in video core appeared with processors Intel under the code name Sandy Bridge, the main innovation of which was the built-in core on the same technical process. The video core is located together with processor on one chip, and not as simple as in previous generations of processors Intel. For those who do not use it, there are disadvantages in the form of some overpayment for the processor, the displacement of the heating source relative to the center of the heat distribution cover. However, there are also advantages. Disabled video core, can be used for very fast video encoding technology Quick Sync coupled with special software that supports this technology. In future, Intel promises to expand the horizons of using the built-in video core for parallel computing.

Sockets for processors. Platform lifespan.

Intel has harsh policies for its platforms. The lifespan of each (the start and end dates of processor sales for it) usually does not exceed 1.5 - 2 years. In addition, the company has several parallel developing platforms.

Company AMD, has the opposite policy of compatibility. On her platform on AM 3, all future generation processors that support DDR3. Even when the platform reaches AM 3+ and later, either new processors for AM 3, or new processors will be compatible with old motherboards, and it will be possible to make a painless upgrade for your wallet by changing only the processor (without changing the motherboard, RAM, etc.) and flashing the motherboard. The only nuances of incompatibility may arise when changing the type, since a different memory controller built into the processor will be required. So compatibility is limited and not supported by all motherboards. But in general, for a budget-conscious user or for those who are not used to completely changing the platform every 2 years, the choice of a processor manufacturer is clear - this AMD.

CPU cooling.

Comes standard with processor BOX-a new cooler that will simply cope with its task. It is a piece of aluminum with a not very high dispersion area. Efficient coolers with heat pipes and plates attached to them are designed for highly efficient heat dissipation. If you do not want to hear extra noise from the fan, then you should purchase an alternative, more efficient cooler with heat pipes, or a closed or open-type liquid cooling system. Such cooling systems will additionally provide the ability to overclock the processor.

Conclusion.

All important aspects affecting the performance and performance of the processor have been considered. Let's repeat what you should pay attention to:

• Select manufacturer
• Processor architecture
• Technical process
• CPU frequency
• Number of processor cores
• Processor cache size and type
• Technology and instruction support
• High-quality cooling

We hope this material will help you understand and decide on choosing a processor that meets your expectations.

The first computer processors with multiple cores appeared on the consumer market back in the mid-2000s, but many users still do not quite understand what multi-core processors are and how to understand their characteristics.

Video format of the article “The whole truth about multi-core processors”

A simple explanation of the question “what is a processor”

The microprocessor is one of the main devices in a computer. This dry official name is often shortened to simply “processor”). The processor is a microcircuit with an area comparable to a matchbox. If you like, the processor is like the engine in a car. The most important part, but not the only one. The car also has wheels, a body, and a player with headlights. But it is the processor (like a car engine) that determines the power of the “machine”.

Many people call a processor a system unit - a “box” inside which all the PC components are located, but this is fundamentally wrong. The system unit is the computer case along with all its component parts - hard drive, RAM and many other parts.

Processor Function - Compute. It doesn't matter which ones exactly. The fact is that all computer work is based solely on arithmetic calculations. Addition, multiplication, subtraction and other algebra - all this is done by a microcircuit called a “processor”. And the results of such calculations are displayed on the screen in the form of a game, a Word file, or just a desktop.

The main part of the computer that performs calculations is what is a processor.

What is a processor core and multi-core

From the beginning of processor centuries, these microcircuits were single-core. The core is, in fact, the processor itself. Its main and main part. Processors also have other parts - say, “legs”-contacts, microscopic “electrical wiring” - but it is the block that is responsible for calculations that is called processor core. When processors became very small, engineers decided to combine several cores inside one processor “case”.

If you imagine a processor as an apartment, then the core is a large room in such an apartment. A one-room apartment is one processor core (a large room-hall), a kitchen, a bathroom, a corridor... A two-room apartment is like two processor cores along with other rooms. There are three-, four-, and even 12-room apartments. The same is the case with processors: inside one “apartment” crystal there can be several “room” cores.

Multi-core- This is the division of one processor into several identical functional blocks. The number of blocks is the number of cores inside one processor.

Types of multi-core processors

There is a misconception: “the more cores a processor has, the better.” This is exactly how marketers, who are paid to create this kind of misconception, try to present the matter. Their task is to sell cheap processors, moreover, at higher prices and in huge quantities. But in fact, the number of cores is far from the main characteristic of processors.

Let's return to the analogy of processors and apartments. A two-room apartment is more expensive, more comfortable and more prestigious than a one-room apartment. But only if these apartments are located in the same area, equipped in the same way, and their renovation is similar. There are weak quad-core (or even 6-core) processors that are significantly weaker than dual-core ones. But it’s hard to believe in this: of course, the magic of large numbers 4 or 6 against “some” two. However, this is exactly what happens very, very often. It seems like the same four-room apartment, but in a ruined state, without renovation, in a completely remote area - and even at the price of a luxurious two-room apartment in the very center.

How many cores are there inside a processor?

For personal computers and laptops, single-core processors have not been produced properly for several years, and it is very rare to find them on sale. The number of cores starts from two. Four cores - as a rule, these are more expensive processors, but there is a return from them. There are also 6-core processors, which are incredibly expensive and much less useful in practical terms. Few tasks can achieve a performance boost on these monstrous crystals.

There was an experiment by AMD to create 3-core processors, but this is already in the past. It turned out quite well, but their time has passed.

By the way, AMD also produces multi-core processors, but, as a rule, they are significantly weaker than competitors from Intel. True, their price is much lower. You just need to know that 4 cores from AMD will almost always turn out to be noticeably weaker than the same 4 cores from Intel.

Now you know that processors come with 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12 cores. Single-core and 12-core processors are very rare. Triple-core processors are a thing of the past. Six-core processors are either very expensive (Intel) or not so strong (AMD) that you pay more for the number. 2 and 4 cores are the most common and practical devices, from the weakest to the most powerful.

Multi-core processor frequency

One of the characteristics of computer processors is their frequency. Those same megahertz (and more often gigahertz). Frequency is an important characteristic, but far from the only one. Yes, perhaps not the most important one. For example, a dual-core 2 gigahertz processor is a more powerful offering than its single-core 3 gigahertz counterpart.

It is completely wrong to assume that the frequency of a processor is equal to the frequency of its cores multiplied by the number of cores. To put it simply, a 2-core processor with a core frequency of 2 GHz has a total frequency in no case equal to 4 gigahertz! Even the concept of “common frequency” does not exist. In this case, CPU frequency equal exactly 2 GHz. No multiplication, addition or other operations.

And again we will “turn” processors into apartments. If the height of the ceilings in each room is 3 meters, then the total height of the apartment will remain the same - the same three meters, and not a centimeter higher. No matter how many rooms there are in such an apartment, the height of these rooms does not change. Also clock speed of processor cores. It does not add up or multiply.

Virtual multi-core, or Hyper-Threading

There are also virtual processor cores. Hyper-Threading technology in Intel processors makes the computer “think” that there are actually 4 cores inside a dual-core processor. Much like a single hard drive divided into several logical- local drives C, D, E and so on.

HyperThreading is a very useful technology for a number of tasks.. Sometimes it happens that the processor core is only half used, and the remaining transistors in its composition are idle. Engineers came up with a way to make these “idlers” work, too, by dividing each physical processor core into two “virtual” parts. It’s as if a fairly large room was divided into two by a partition.

Does this make any practical sense? trick with virtual cores? Most often - yes, although it all depends on the specific tasks. It seems that there are more rooms (and most importantly, they are used more rationally), but the area of ​​​​the room has not changed. In offices, such partitions are incredibly useful, and in some residential apartments too. In other cases, there is no point in partitioning the room (dividing the processor core into two virtual ones).

Note that the most expensive and productive class processorsCorei7 is mandatory equippedHyperThreading. They have 4 physical cores and 8 virtual ones. It turns out that 8 computational threads work simultaneously on one processor. Less expensive but also powerful Intel class processors Corei5 consist of four cores, but Hyper Threading does not work there. It turns out that Core i5 work with 4 threads of calculations.

Processors Corei3- typical “average”, both in price and performance. They have two cores and no hint of Hyper-Threading. In total it turns out that Corei3 only two computational threads. The same applies to frankly budget crystals Pentium andCeleron. Two cores, no hyper-threading = two threads.

Does a computer need many cores? How many cores does a processor need?

All modern processors are powerful enough for common tasks. Browsing the Internet, correspondence on social networks and by e-mail, office tasks Word-PowerPoint-Excel: weak Atom, budget Celeron and Pentium are suitable for this work, not to mention the more powerful Core i3. Two cores are more than enough for normal work. A processor with a large number of cores will not bring a significant increase in speed.

For games you should pay attention to processorsCorei3 ori5. Rather, gaming performance will depend not on the processor, but on the video card. Rarely does a game require the full power of a Core i7. Therefore, it is believed that games require no more than four processor cores, and more often two cores are suitable.

For serious work such as special engineering programs, video encoding and other resource-intensive tasks Really productive equipment is required. Often, not only physical, but also virtual processor cores are used here. The more computing threads, the better. And it doesn’t matter how much such a processor costs: for professionals, the price is not so important.

Are there any benefits to multi-core processors?

Absolutely yes. At the same time, the computer is engaged in several tasks - at least running Windows (by the way, these are hundreds of different tasks) and, at the same moment, playing a movie. Playing music and browsing the Internet. The work of a text editor and the included music. Two processor cores - and this is, in fact, two processors - will cope with different tasks faster than one. Two cores will make this a little faster. Four is even faster than two.

In the first years of the existence of multi-core technology, not all programs were able to work even with two processor cores. By 2014, the vast majority of applications understand and can take advantage of multiple cores. The speed of processing tasks on a dual-core processor rarely doubles, but there is almost always a performance increase.

Therefore, the deep-rooted myth that programs cannot use multiple cores is outdated information. Once upon a time this was indeed the case, today the situation has improved dramatically. The benefits of multiple cores are undeniable, that's a fact.

When the processor has fewer cores, it’s better

You should not buy a processor using the incorrect formula “the more cores, the better.” This is wrong. Firstly, 4, 6 and 8-core processors are significantly more expensive than their dual-core counterparts. A significant increase in price is not always justified from a performance point of view. For example, if an 8-core processor turns out to be only 10% faster than a CPU with fewer cores, but is 2 times more expensive, then such a purchase will be difficult to justify.

Secondly, the more cores a processor has, the more voracious it is in terms of energy consumption. There is no point in buying a much more expensive laptop with a 4-core (8-thread) Core i7 if this laptop will only process text files, browse the Internet, and so on. There will be no difference with the dual-core (4 threads) Core i5, and the classic Core i3 with only two computational threads will not be inferior to its more eminent “colleague”. And such a powerful laptop will last much less on battery power than the economical and undemanding Core i3.

Multi-core processors in mobile phones and tablets

The fashion for multiple computing cores inside one processor also applies to mobile devices. Smartphones and tablets with a large number of cores almost never use the full capabilities of their microprocessors. Dual-core mobile computers sometimes actually work a little faster, but 4, and even more so 8 cores are frankly overkill. The battery is consumed absolutely ungodly, and powerful computing devices simply sit idle. Conclusion - multi-core processors in phones, smartphones and tablets are just a tribute to marketing, and not an urgent need. Computers are more demanding devices than phones. They really need two processor cores. Four won't hurt. 6 and 8 are overkill for normal tasks and even games.

How to choose a multi-core processor and not make a mistake?

The practical part of today's article is relevant for 2014. It is unlikely that anything will change significantly in the coming years. We will only talk about processors manufactured by Intel. Yes, AMD offers good solutions, but they are less popular and more difficult to understand.

Note that the table is based on processors from 2012-2014. Older samples have different characteristics. We also did not mention rare CPU variants, for example, the single-core Celeron (there are such even today, but this is an atypical variant that is almost not represented on the market). You should not choose processors solely by the number of cores inside them - there are other, more important characteristics. The table will only make it easier to choose a multi-core processor, but a specific model (and there are dozens of them in each class) should be purchased only after carefully familiarizing yourself with their parameters: frequency, heat dissipation, generation, cache size and other characteristics.

CPU	Number of Cores	Computational threads	Typical Application
Atom	1-2	1-4	Low-power computers and netbooks. The goal of Atom processors is to minimize power consumption. Their productivity is minimal.
Celeron	2	2	The cheapest processors for desktops and laptops. The performance is sufficient for office tasks, but these are not gaming CPUs at all.
Pentium	2	2	Intel processors are just as inexpensive and low-performance as Celeron. An excellent choice for office computers. Pentiums are equipped with a slightly larger cache, and, sometimes, slightly increased performance compared to Celeron
Core i3	2	4	Two fairly powerful cores, each of which is divided into two virtual “processors” (Hyper-Threading). These are already quite powerful CPUs at not too high prices. A good choice for a home or powerful office computer without much performance requirements.
Core i5	4	4	Full-fledged 4-core Core i5 processors are quite expensive. Their performance is lacking only in the most demanding tasks.
Core i7	4-6	8-12	The most powerful, but especially expensive Intel processors. As a rule, they are rarely faster than Core i5, and only in some programs. There are simply no alternatives to them.

A brief summary of the article “The whole truth about multi-core processors.” Instead of a note

• CPU core- its component. In fact, an independent processor inside the case. Dual-core processor - two processors inside one.
• Multi-core comparable to the number of rooms inside the apartment. Two-room apartments are better than one-room apartments, but only with other characteristics being equal (location of the apartment, condition, area, ceiling height).
• The statement that the more cores a processor has, the better it is- a marketing ploy, a completely wrong rule. After all, an apartment is chosen not only by the number of rooms, but also by its location, renovation and other parameters. The same applies to multiple cores inside the processor.
• Exists "virtual" multi-core— Hyper-Threading technology. Thanks to this technology, each “physical” core is divided into two “virtual” ones. It turns out that a 2-core processor with Hyper-Threading has only two real cores, but these processors simultaneously process 4 computational threads. This is a really useful feature, but a 4-thread processor cannot be considered a quad-core processor.
• For Intel desktop processors: Celeron - 2 cores and 2 threads. Pentium - 2 cores, 2 threads. Core i3 - 2 cores, 4 threads. Core i5 - 4 cores, 4 threads. Core i7 - 4 cores, 8 threads. Intel laptop (mobile) CPUs have a different number of cores/threads.
• For mobile computers, energy efficiency (in practice, battery life) is often more important than the number of cores.

Probably every user with little knowledge of computers has encountered a bunch of incomprehensible characteristics when choosing a central processor: technical process, cache, socket; I turned for advice to friends and acquaintances who were competent in the matter of computer hardware. Let's look at the variety of various parameters, because the processor is the most important part of your PC, and understanding its characteristics will give you confidence in your purchase and further use.

CPU

The processor of a personal computer is a chip that is responsible for performing any operations with data and controls peripheral devices. It is contained in a special silicon package called a die. For short designation use the abbreviation - CPU(central processing unit) or CPU(from the English Central Processing Unit - central processing device). In the modern computer components market there are two competing corporations, Intel and AMD, who constantly participate in the race for the performance of new processors, constantly improving the technological process.

Technical process

Technical process is the size used in the production of processors. It determines the size of the transistor, the unit of which is nm (nanometer). Transistors, in turn, form the internal core of the CPU. The bottom line is that continuous improvement in manufacturing techniques makes it possible to reduce the size of these components. As a result, there are much more of them placed on the processor chip. This helps improve the performance of the CPU, so its parameters always indicate the technology used. For example, the Intel Core i5-760 is made using a 45 nm process technology, and the Intel Core i5-2500K is made using a 32 nm process. Based on this information, you can judge how modern the processor is and how superior it is in performance to its predecessor, but when choosing, you must also take into account a number of other parameters.

Architecture

Processors are also characterized by such a characteristic as architecture - a set of properties inherent in a whole family of processors, usually produced over many years. In other words, architecture is their organization or internal design of the CPU.

Number of Cores

Core- the most important element of the central processor. It is a part of the processor that can execute one thread of instructions. The cores differ in cache memory size, bus frequency, manufacturing technology, etc. Manufacturers assign new names to them with each subsequent technological process (for example, the AMD processor core is Zambezi, and Intel is Lynnfield). With the development of processor production technologies, it has become possible to place more than one core in one case, which significantly increases CPU performance and helps to perform several tasks simultaneously, as well as use several cores in programs. Multi-core processors will be able to quickly cope with archiving, video decoding, the operation of modern video games, etc. For example, Intel's Core 2 Duo and Core 2 Quad processor lines, which use dual-core and quad-core CPUs, respectively. Currently, processors with 2, 3, 4 and 6 cores are widely available. A larger number of them are used in server solutions and are not required by the average PC user.

Frequency

In addition to the number of cores, performance is affected by clock frequency. The value of this characteristic reflects the performance of the CPU in the number of clock cycles (operations) per second. Another important characteristic is bus frequency(FSB - Front Side Bus) demonstrating the speed at which data is exchanged between the processor and computer peripherals. The clock frequency is proportional to the bus frequency.

Socket

In order for the future processor to be compatible with the existing motherboard when upgrading, you need to know its socket. A socket is called connector, in which the CPU is installed on the computer motherboard. The socket type is characterized by the number of legs and the processor manufacturer. Different sockets correspond to specific types of CPUs, so each socket allows the installation of a specific type of processor. Intel uses the LGA1156, LGA1366 and LGA1155 socket, while AMD uses AM2+ and AM3.

Cache

Cache- the amount of memory with a very high access speed, necessary to speed up access to data that is permanently located in memory with a slower access speed (RAM). When choosing a processor, remember that increasing the cache size has a positive effect on the performance of most applications. The CPU cache has three levels ( L1, L2 and L3), located directly on the processor core. It receives data from RAM for higher processing speed. It is also worth considering that for multi-core CPUs, the amount of first level cache memory for one core is indicated. L2 cache performs similar functions, but is slower and larger in size. If you plan to use the processor for resource-intensive tasks, then a model with a large second level cache will be preferable, given that for multi-core processors the total L2 cache size is indicated. The most powerful processors, such as AMD Phenom, AMD Phenom II, Intel Core i3, Intel Core i5, Intel Core i7, Intel Xeon, are equipped with L3 cache. The third level cache is the least fast, but it can reach 30 MB.

Energy consumption

The power consumption of a processor is closely related to its manufacturing technology. With decreasing nanometers of the technical process, increasing the number of transistors and increasing the clock frequency of processors, the power consumption of the CPU increases. For example, Intel Core i7 processors require up to 130 watts or more. The voltage supplied to the core clearly characterizes the power consumption of the processor. This parameter is especially important when choosing a CPU to use as a multimedia center. Modern processor models use various technologies that help combat excessive power consumption: built-in temperature sensors, automatic control systems for voltage and frequency of processor cores, energy-saving modes when the CPU load is light.

Additional features

Modern processors have acquired the ability to work in 2- and 3-channel modes with RAM, which significantly affects its performance, and also support a larger set of instructions, raising their functionality to a new level. GPUs process video on their own, thereby offloading the CPU, thanks to technology DXVA(from the English DirectX Video Acceleration - video acceleration by the DirectX component). Intel uses the above technology Turbo Boost to dynamically change the clock frequency of the central processor. Technology Speed ​​Step manages CPU power consumption depending on processor activity, and Intel Virtualization Technology hardware creates a virtual environment for using multiple operating systems. Also, modern processors can be divided into virtual cores using technology Hyper Threading. For example, a dual-core processor is capable of dividing the clock speed of one core into two, resulting in high processing performance using four virtual cores.

When thinking about the configuration of your future PC, do not forget about the video card and its GPU(from the English Graphics Processing Unit - graphic processing unit) - the processor of your video card, which is responsible for rendering (arithmetic operations with geometric, physical objects, etc.). The higher the frequency of its core and memory frequency, the less load on the central processor will be. Gamers should pay special attention to the GPU.

In reality, nothing like that happens. To understand why an eight-core processor does not double the performance of a smartphone, some explanation is required. The future of smartphone processors is now. Eight-core processors, which only recently could only be dreamed of, are becoming increasingly widespread. But it turns out that their task is not to increase the performance of the device.

These explanations were published in the article “Octa-core vs Quad-core: Does it make a difference?” on resource pages Trusted Reviews.

The terms “octa-core” and “quad-core” themselves reflect the number of CPU cores.

But the key difference between these two types of processors is the way the processor cores are installed.

With a quad-core processor, all cores can work simultaneously to enable fast and flexible multitasking, smoother 3D gaming, faster camera performance, and more.

Modern eight-core chips, in turn, simply consist of two quad-core processors that distribute different tasks among themselves depending on their type. Most often, an eight-core chip contains a set of four cores with a lower clock speed than the second set. When a complex task needs to be completed, the faster processor naturally takes on it.

A more accurate term than "octa-core" would be "dual quad-core." But it doesn't sound so nice and isn't suitable for marketing purposes. That's why these processors are called eight-core.

Why do we need two sets of processor cores?

What is the reason for combining two sets of processor cores, passing tasks to one another, in one device? To ensure energy efficiency! This solution is necessary for a battery-powered smartphone, but not for a head unit that is constantly powered by the car’s on-board power supply.

A more powerful CPU consumes more power and the battery needs to be charged more often. And batteries are a much weaker link in a smartphone than processors. As a result, the more powerful the smartphone processor, the more capacious battery it needs.

However, for most smartphone tasks you will not need such high computing performance as a modern processor can provide. Navigating between home screens, checking messages, and even web navigation are less processor-intensive tasks.

But HD video, games and working with photos are such tasks. Therefore, eight-core processors are quite practical, although this solution can hardly be called elegant. A weaker processor handles less resource-intensive tasks. More powerful - more resource-intensive. As a result, overall power consumption is reduced compared to the situation when only a processor with a high clock frequency would handle all tasks. Thus, a dual processor primarily solves the problem of increasing energy efficiency, not performance.

Technological features

All modern eight-core processors are based on the ARM architecture, the so-called big.LITTLE.

This eight-core big.LITTLE architecture was announced in October 2011 and allowed four low-performance Cortex-A7 cores to work in conjunction with four high-performance Cortex-A15 cores. ARM has repeated this approach every year since, offering more capable chips for both sets of processor cores on the eight-core chip.

Some of the major mobile device chip makers are focusing their efforts on this big.LITTLE "octa-core" example. One of the first and most notable was Samsung's own chip, the famous Exynos. Its eight-core model has been used since the Samsung Galaxy S4, in at least some versions of the company's devices.

More recently, Qualcomm also began using big.LITTLE in its eight-core Snapdragon 810 CPU chips. It is on this processor that such well-known new products in the smartphone market as the HTC One M9 and G Flex 2, which has become a great achievement for LG, are based.

At the beginning of 2015, NVIDIA introduced Tegra X1, a new super-powerful mobile processor that the company intends for automotive computers. The X1's main feature is its console-challenging GPU, which is also based on the big.LITTLE architecture. That is, it will also become eight-core.

Is there a big difference for the average user?

Is there a big difference between a quad-core and an eight-core smartphone processor for the average user? No, in fact it is very small, says Trusted Reviews.

The term "octa-core" is somewhat confusing, but it actually means duplication of quad-core processors. The result is two independently operating quad-core sets, combined into one chip to improve energy efficiency.

Do every modern device need an eight-core processor? There is no such need; for example, Apple ensures decent energy efficiency of its iPhones with only a dual-core processor.

Thus, the eight-core ARM big.LITTLE architecture is one of the possible solutions to one of the most important issues regarding smartphones - battery life. As soon as another solution to this problem is found, the trend of installing two quad-core sets in one chip will stop, and such solutions will go out of fashion.