Abstract: Current trends in the development of economic information systems. Stages of information systems development

Introduction

Conclusion

Bibliography

economic information system

Introduction

Economic systems belong to complex systems of organizational management, since they have an integral hierarchical structure with multilateral connections and complex management functions. Management of an industry, region, enterprise, etc. can be considered as an economic system. In the management system of an economic object of any level, one can distinguish control and controlled subsystems.

The control subsystem carries out management functions, sets general goals for the functioning of the economic object as a whole and subgoals- for his units. The management subsystem at the enterprise is represented by the divisions and services of the management apparatus: personnel department, accounting department, economic planning department, office, etc.

The management subsystem, represented by the heads of departments and services of the management apparatus, uses information about the production and economic activities of the economic entity and information from outside to develop and make management decisions, which are transferred to the managed subsystem.

The controlled subsystem carries out functions related to the production and release of finished products or the performance of socially necessary work. The managed subsystem includes divisions and services of the enterprise directly involved in production and economic activities.

The control and controlled subsystems have feedback, which allows you to monitor and take into account the actual state of the object and make appropriate adjustments to it. With the help of cybernetics, it has been established that control by a feedback system is one of the most general and important principles that unite technical devices, living organisms and economic systems. Information is a type of causal relationship that arises in the management process. Thanks to it, the control subsystem influences the controlled one, and vice versa.

Thus, any management system has its own information system, and the management system of an economic entity- economic information system.

Goal of the work - consider information systems in economics, their content and types, as well as current trends in their development.

1. Information system and its types

Information system (IS)is an information service system for employees of management services and performs technological functions for the accumulation, storage, transmission and processing of information. It develops, is formed and functions in accordance with the regulations determined by the methods and structure of management activities adopted at a specific economic entity, and implements the goals and objectives facing it. Information systems are diverse and can be classified according to several criteria.

Economic Information System (EIS)- this is a set of internal and external flows of direct and feedback information communication of an economic object, methods, tools, specialists involved in the process of information processing and the development of management decisions.

Industry information systems operate in the industrial and agro-industrial complexes, construction, transport, healthcare and other sectors of the production and non-production spheres. These systems solve the problems of information services for the management apparatusrelevant departments.

Territorial information systems are designed to manage administrative-territorial regions; the activities of territorial systems are aimed at the high-quality performance of management functions in the region, the generation of reports, and the issuance of operational information to local government bodies.

Intersectoral information systems are specialized systems of functional management bodies of the national economy (banking, financial, procurement, statistical, etc.).

Equipped with powerful computing systems, cross-industrymulti-level information systems ensure the development of economic and business forecasts, the state budget, regulate the activities of all parts of the economy, as well as control the availability and distribution of resources.

Management Information Systems technological processes are most widely used in industry, and primarily in industries with continuous technological processes. In the metallurgical industry, they are used to control the smelting of steel, the process of producing cast iron, in the chemical industry to control technological processes for the production of ammonia, nitric and sulfuric acids, etc. In mechanical engineering, automation of technological processes is carried out through the use of computer-controlled machines and robotics; on transport- through the use of special machines and devices for automatic driving of trains, airplanes, cars, sorting cars, etc.

By using information systems organizational (administrative) management involves the management of large teams of people who perform enormous work on accounting, planning, analysis and control of activities at all levels of economic management: intersectoral, sectoral, territorial and at the level of enterprises, organizations, firms.

Examples of such information systems are:

  • banking IS;
  • Stock market IS;
  • financial IP;
  • insurance IP;
  • Information system of tax authorities;
  • IP of the customs service;
  • state statistical information systems;
  • IS management of enterprises and organizations; a special place in importance and prevalence in them is occupied by accounting, reference and legal, personnel information systems, as well as office management systems, information and analytical systems;
  • other information systems.

Information systems for managing organizational and technological processes are complex integrated systems and combine the functions of managing technological processes with the functions of managing the facility as a whole.

In automatic systems, all control operations are performed automatically by a computer. The role of humans in these systems is limited to monitoring the operation of machines and performing control functions. Automatic systems are used to control technical objects and technological processes and usually work in real time.

In automated control systems, operations to transform information are performed using technical means, but with human participation. A person here selects and adjusts the goals and criteria for management effectiveness, introduces a creative element into the search for the best ways to achieve set goals, makes the final selection of decisions and gives them legal force.

2. Modern information economic systems. Development trends

The emerging transition to a market economy in Russia requires new approaches to management: economic and market efficiency criteria are coming to the fore, and requirements for flexibility are increasing. Scientific and technological progress and the dynamics of the external environment are forcing modern enterprises to turn into increasingly complex systems that require new methods of ensuring controllability.

A new direction in management was the emergence of controlling as a functionally separate area of ​​economic work in an enterprise, associated with the implementation of financial and economic functions in management for making operational and strategic management decisions. Controlling– (eng. to control – control, manage)– This is management management. Controlling functions:

– coordination of management activities to achieve the goals of the enterprise;

– information and consulting support for making management decisions;

– creating conditions for the functioning of a general enterprise management information system;

– ensuring the rationality of the management process.

Controlling is a unique mechanism of self-regulation of the organization and provides feedback in the control loop. Occupying a special place in the management system, controlling contributes to information support making decisions in order to optimally use available opportunities, objectively assess the strengths and weaknesses of the enterprise, as well as to avoid bankruptcy and crisis situations.

The effective operation of a modern enterprise is possible only if there is a single integrated unifying system: financial management, personnel management, supply management, sales management, controlling and production management. Integrated systems (corporate information systems, CIS) become a means of achieving the main business goals: improving the quality of products, increasing production volume, taking a stable position in the market and winning the competition.

In order to provide support for most of the company's needs, the CIS must be created taking into account the latest information technologies, including methods for creating distributed systems– from simple client-server applications to complex geographically distributed systems. The complex system being created must be flexible and easily modified, allowing it to track continuous changes in the business.

The practice of creating information systems using the company’s “as is” model has shown that automation without reengineering business processes and modernizing the existing management system does not bring the desired results and is ineffective, since the use software applications – This is already a transition to new forms of document management, accounting and reporting. A business reengineering project involves the following four phases.

1. Developing the image of the future company– a specification of the company's main goals based on its strategy, customer needs, the overall level of business in the industry (determined based on an analysis of the related industry of another leading company) and the current state of the company.

2. Creating a model of an existing company– development of a detailed description of an existing company, identification and documentation of main business processes, assessment of their effectiveness.

3. Development of a new business (direct engineering):

– redesigning business processes, creating more efficient work procedures (elementary tasks from which business processes are built), determining ways to use information technology, identifying necessary changes in the work of personnel;

– development of the company’s business processes at the level of labor resources: designing a list of work performed, preparing a motivation system, organizing a team to carry out work and a quality support group, creating a specialist training program, etc.;

– development of supporting information systems: identification of available resources (equipment, software) and the creation of a specialized information system with the active participation of future users of the system.

4. Implementation of redesigned processes– integration and testing of developed processes and supporting information system, employee training, installation of information system.

When reengineering a business– processes, first of all, the main problems and needs of the business are formulated and models of business processes are built, which include all the events and sequences of operations that the information system must support. In parallel, a technical audit of the existing information system and the development of a technical architecture are carried out: the basic principles of the technical construction of the system are determined, a strategy for data security and access control, user interfaces, data copying and recovery is determined.

Then recommendations are formed for changes in the organizational structure of the enterprise and the structure of business processes. During the implementation of the project, department employees, together with developers, must work with information and models and participate in the selection of technological solutions. Only with the implementation of CIS from top to bottom and the active assistance of management can the entire range of work be initially correctly assessed and carried out without unplanned costs. To implement a CIS implementation project, including the reorganization of the enterprise management system and reengineering of business processes, it is necessary to attract qualified specialists, therefore consulting companies are usually involved.

At the beginning of the 21st century, standards and models for organizing the management of a continuously developing enterprise appeared– quality management standards. Most modern management information systems fully implement the principles reflected in these standards (ISO9000:2000 series), which, in fact, are standards for the effective organization of activities.

Currently, along with systems implementing resource management models MRPI, MRPII, ERP, CRM, and SCM, the following systems are widely used:

Project Management System– the system supports the creation, modification, launch and implementation of company projects with the ability to automatically calculate and optimize deadlines and financial costs for the project;

Business Process Management– the system supports the launch and execution of business processes;

Personal Task Management (Personal Information System)– a system that supports the execution by staff of received tasks, the creation of managers’ own tasks, and the creation of tasks for subordinates.

Currently, information systems based on data processing algorithms are most widespread. Algorithms are fixed in the program code of the systems. To change the properties of the system, it is necessary to change the composition or parameters of the algorithms and test the modules independently or as part of a new version of the system. Algorithms differ in the number and structure of functional modules. There are three types of algorithmic systems.

1. Monolithic systems. Created over years of programming. To maintain the current state, it is necessary to maintain a group of specialists, otherwise the systems can be used as storage devices and suppliers of data to application systems capable of dynamically and inexpensively changing properties locally.

2.Modular systems. Systems built on a set of specialized software modules integrated with data. The creation of the systems marked the beginning of the evolution of resource management systems and led to a significant reduction in time and cost.

3.Component systems. The systems are based on open standards for information exchange of components from independent developers and a developed ability to integrate components. The properties of the components are developed by its author. System modernization comes down to replacing individual components or their versions and their new integration. Building systems from components significantly reduced the time, cost and risks and created favorable conditions for combining the services of independent integrators and consultants.

The development of an algorithmic system is limited by the composition of the system modules. The functionality of the system develops largely independently of the development of the enterprise and business goals. During the period of changing system versions, there is a risk of loss of control stability. The development of the system can be carried out by the developer and integrator. The limits for changing the properties of systems are predetermined by the developer. It is assumed that with further growth in requirements for flexibility and adaptability, algorithmic systems will either die out or occupy the niche of local systems.

The main trend in the development of information systems is the transition from algorithmic systems to intelligent systems capable of accepting and integrating knowledge. Intelligent systems are distinguished by the presence of a business component editor and a business rules interpreter. Such systems do not have built-in program code algorithms are controlled on the basis of data processing rules accumulated in the system and are therefore capable of accepting and processing knowledge.

The limits for changing the properties of intelligent systems are not set in advance, since their properties are completely determined by the organization model. Replacing the model leads to changes in the properties of the system. Due to the fact that changing the description of a business resource or an operation rule leads to a change in the model, the properties of intelligent systems change with each input new information or data. Putting the system into use represents training the system. The functionality of the system develops along with the development of the enterprise and business goals. It is possible to simultaneously manage an enterprise and change the organizational model.

In the near future, standards will be adopted for the presentation of data, information and knowledge, which will significantly reduce transaction costs and create conditions for the accelerated creation of new knowledge and its exchange. The level of knowledge integration already exceeds the scale of one country. Information systems, like enterprises themselves, are becoming virtual, globally distributed organizational and technical systems, the components of which are integrated on the basis of standards into the infrastructure of the information society that supports the activities, management of activities and development of the organization's activities.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the following conclusions can be drawn:

Information economic system– This is an information service system for employees of economic services, which performs technological functions of accumulating, storing, transmitting and processing information.

An information system includes subsystems that can be considered as independent systems, which in turn are divided into functional and supporting.The functional part is a model of the economic object management system. The supporting part contributes to the effective functioning of the system as a whole and its individual subsystems.

It is important to understand that information systems directly support almost all aspects of management activities in such functional areas as accounting, finance, human resources management, marketing and production management.

Information systems in the real world are usually combinations of several types of information systems because conceptual classifications of information systems are designed to emphasize the different roles of information systems. In practice, these roles are integrated into complex or interconnected information systems that provide a range of functions. Thus, most information systems are designed to provide information and support decision-making at various levels of management and in various functional areas.

Bibliography

1. Automated information technologies: Textbook / Ed. prof. G.A. Titorenko.- M.; UNITY, 2007.

2.Bendrov A.M. Design of software for economic information systems: Textbook.-

3. Golkina G.E. Accounting information systems: Textbook.- M.: MESI, 2008.

4. Information systems in economics: Textbook / Ed. prof. V.V. Dick.- M.: Finance and Statistics, 2006.

5. Information technologies: textbook. allowance / O. L. Golitsyna, N. V. Maksimov, T. L. Partyka, I. I. Popov. M.: FORUM: INFRA-M, 2006.

6.Klykov, M.S. Information systems and technologies in economics: textbook. allowance / M.S. Klykov, N.P. Grigoriev, T.I. Balalaeva; edited by prof. M.S. Klykova.– Khabarovsk: Publishing house DVGUPS, 2007.– 480 s.

7. Computer technologies based on automated systems: Workshop.- M: Fintatinform, 2005.

8. Nadtochiy A.I. Technical means of informatization: textbook. allowance / Under general. ed. K.I. Kurbakova. M.: KOS-INF; Ross. econ. acad., 2003.

9. Fundamentals of computer science (textbook for applicants to economic universities) / K. I. Kurbakov, T. L. Partyka, I. I. Popov, V. P. Romanov. M.: Exam, 2004.

10. Fedorova G.V. Computer information systems // Collection of scientific papers “Problems of computerization of information systems”.- M.: MESI, 2007.

11.www. consultant.ru

Posted on Allbest.ru

Over a fairly long period of development, organizational management systems have gone from the simplest manual methods accounting of material inventories and production resources to the most complex computer systems, claiming to have comprehensive coverage of the organization’s activities.

One of the most important management tasks there was a task inventory management. One of famous systems inventory management - control by point of order. The speed of response of such a system to changes and the reliability of signals is low, but in conditions of stable demand the system worked quite well and made it possible to manage material resources with minimal labor costs. This approach is still used to account for inexpensive materials. For driving or reserves within the entire organization , especially those producing complex products, in conditions of fierce competition and a rapidly changing environment, including demand, it is unacceptable because of:

ü risk of non-delivery;

ü high level safety stock;

ü not balancing future needs for materials with their reserves.

Interest in inventory management research was fueled by the rapid growth of large-scale and mass production of consumer goods and trade after World War II. Looking for ways increasing the efficiency of organizations Practitioners and theorists of production management had to look away from the study of operations in production itself and pay attention to the fact that the use of mathematical methods for demand planning and inventory management leads to significant cost savings , frozen in the form of work in progress and at the same time prevents production disruptions due to shortages of materials and components.

It is impossible to develop "absolutely optimal inventory planning methods" algorithms should be selected and adapted to the specifics of specific warehouse tasks, depending on the production cycle or supply of stored items, cost, product sizes, packaging, applicability and demand, warehouse volumes, etc. Selecting the optimal volume of an order batch is one of the most important conditions for increasing the efficiency of an organization. , since their insufficient volume leads to an increase in administrative costs for repeat orders, and their excess volume leads to freezing of funds.

In the USSR, automation of various management tasks and functions developed within the framework of automated control systems (ACS). ACS is a human-machine system based on the integrated use of economic and mathematical methods and technical means of information processing to solve management problems. Such systems served one or more management functions within the organization's functional areas and could span multiple levels of management. Modern automated control systems have significantly expanded their capabilities due to a powerful analytical apparatus and flexibility of functioning within the framework of an existing organization.

Currently, corporate information systems (CIS) are used to automate management functions.

The difference between CIS and conventional IS and automated control systems.

The scope of tasks performed by CIS is the same. The fundamental difference between CIS is their replicability, which is ensured by the use of standard solutions for complexes of management tasks. CIS is written for a standard organization, while automated control systems are most often unique for each organization. The tasks solved by CIS, due to their universality, cannot solve all the problems of a particular organization, even if they are included in the system. This leads to the problem of adapting the CIS itself or the organization to its implementation (forced reengineering ), development of individual methods for implementing these systems. These problems are partially solved through the creation of industry-specific CIS.

Changing the approach to the use of IP is the basis for periodizing the development of IP.

IP development:

Ø centralized data processing model based on mainframes (supercomputers);

Ø distributed architecture of peer-to-peer local computer networks (LAN) PCs;

Ø centralization of system resources.

Today the focus is on client-server technology , which combines the advantages of its predecessors.

Distinctive features of modern IP – a hierarchical organization in which centralized processing and unified resource management at the top level are combined with distributed processing at the bottom.

The development of IP will follow one of three models: large, medium or small.

Rice. 5.2. Models of organization of modern information systems

In the IS structure there must be one or more “information concentration nodes” (IUC), each of which combines hardware and software designed to support the work of users. The system's central centers concentrate specialized personnel performing the functions of system administration, management network resources And technical support. Users work in the environment local networks(LS). The use of concentration node resources occurs in rare cases, for example, when backup files.

The distributed processing model with a concentration node is called centralized network. Advantages of the IS model with a centralized network organization:

· the ability to effectively implement client-server technology;

· adaptability to user requirements due to a combination of hardware and software, concentrated in the concentration node.

Concentration around a single server is not the best solution:

· There are restrictions on the number of clients connected to the server. An increase in the number of clients leads to a slower response of the system.

· IS is required to perform many diverse functions, from traditional accounting programs to management tasks. Mixing the entire range of similar tasks in one PC is ineffective.

Rational decision a hierarchical IS model is presented: central server of the system (central office) - local servers(divisions) client stations (company personnel).

Feature of the large model is the presence of networks at two levels: a core network and many local networks that provide users with mutual data exchange and access to corporate resources.

The difference between the mid-level model lies in the absence of the main node of concentration of the system - its responsibilities are distributed among local servers.

The position of an IP with a complex organization will be strengthened, as confirmed by:

1. An increase in the number of IS clients.

2. Maintaining user orientation towards UNIX servers.

4. Increasing the intelligence of software.

1. Active use of object technologies.Object technologies have taken a strong position in the development of information systems. Their use in this area continues to expand. This is greatly facilitated by the creation of a developed facility infrastructure.

2. Integration of heterogeneous information resources.Thanks to the active development of information systems, many organizations have become owners of collections of information resources of various natures, each of which is supported by its own software that provides its own specific interface for the user.

Under the integration of information resources is understood as providing users with access to several sources of information resources in terms of a single materialized or virtual representation, eliminating redundancy of information at the logical or semantic level.

3. Architecture of distributed systems. Distributed information systems have now become an everyday reality. Numerous corporate information systems use distributed databases. Methods for data distribution and distributed data management, architectural approaches that ensure system scalability, implementing the principles of multi-tier client-server architecture, as well as middle-layer architecture, have been developed.

4. Mobile information systems. IN Due to the intensive development of communication technologies, mobile information systems are actively developing. Hardware and software for their creation have been developed. Thanks to this, they began to develop mobile systems databases. Many scientific teams conduct research into the specific features of such systems and create various prototypes of them. Technology has become an important tool for mobile software development Java . Protocol standard created wireless access applications in Web (Wireless Application Protocol, WAP ), which is already supported by some models cell phones. Based WAP and XML language consortium W 3 C developed a markup language for wireless communications WML (Wireless Markup Language).

5. Metadata support.In the development of information systems, more attention has been paid to metadata. Here steps are being taken in two directions - standardizing the presentation of metadata and ensuring their support in the system.

6. Semantic processing of information resources. Earlier, back in the 70s and 80s, attempts were made to create knowledge-based systems. A number of research projects devoted to these problems were carried out at Stanford University (USA), at the University of Toronto (Canada) and other major scientific centers. Various research prototypes have been created for database systems that support semantic data models, as well as information retrieval systems that use natural languages ​​as query languages. Search engines This type was also created in our country. In recent years, work has been actively carried out on semantic text search. The W 3C consortium and several large research centers in the USA and Europe have launched and are actively working on creating a semantic Web. While the current implementation of the Web involves human interpretation of information resources, the semantic Web will allow the creation of applications with computer interpretation. It will also have means of logical inference.

7. Data flow management. Data flow management is one of the new emerging areas in the field of information systems, associated with the processing of network traffic data, data generated by various types of sensors, message flows Email and so on. Tools designed for this purpose began to be created, which are called data flow management systems(Data Stream Management System,DSMS) general purpose. A specific direction has emerged related to document flows in text systems ─ flow filtering.

8.Sharing of information technologies. In recent years, tools and large information systems have begun to appear that combine various information technologies from the field of databases, text systems and the Web. Thus, a number of commercial DBMSs have been created that, along with data management functions traditional for database technologies, provide text search capabilities. The simplest contextual search capabilities are provided by popular Web browsers. Web search engines use the technology for accessing information resources implemented in this environment together with text search technologies. In a new class of DBMS called XML-oriented, database technologies and XML technologies. The Web environment provides access to databases SQL data according to user requests. Integrated systems are being created that provide access to databases and text information resources using a single interface. One of these systems was created by IBM.

9. Growing scale of information systems. Improvement technical capabilities computer technology, the development of communication tools and information resource management technologies in recent years have led to the emergence of larger information systems. We are talking about the scale of systems not only in relation to the volume of supported information resources, but also the number of their users. Very large database systems have emerged, supporting many gigabytes and even petabytes of data, text search systems with very large collections of documents. The volume of Web information resources currently amounts to many millions of pages. Enterprise database systems have thousands of users. An order of magnitude more users have some information Web services. The number of such large systems continues to grow.

10. Globalization of information systems. The trend towards globalization of information systems is increasing. Globalization of information systems has two sides: ensuring global user access to the system and integrating information resources distributed on the global network. A unique global information system is the Web. It embodies both of these sides of the globalization of information systems. It provides global access to information resources explicitly presented on Web sites, as well as to resources of the “hidden” Web. At the same time, various applications are being created on the Web platform to ensure the integration of information resources distributed on the Web. Numerous global systems are currently being created as Web applications for electronic business, to support scientific cooperation between various teams of scientists in many fields of knowledge on an international and national scale, in librarianship and in other areas. The Web environment provides ideal conditions to support such systems.

11. Convergence of technologies. One of the important trends in the field of information systems is the convergence of various layers of information systems technologies. There is an interpenetration of ideas, borrowing approaches and techniques from related areas of information technology.

12. Development of information technology standards. The last decade has been a period of intense activity to standardize various aspects of information technology. This activity is carried out not only by official standardization bodies, but also by numerous industrial consortia established specifically for these purposes.

13. Automated development information systems. A major achievement of modern information systems technology is the creation of methods for their analysis and design, which have been tested in practice over the course of two to three decades. Based on them, CASE tools have been developed, which are supplied by many software development companies.

An information system is an interconnected set of tools, methods and personnel used for storing, processing and issuing information in order to achieve a set goal.

The modern understanding of an information system assumes the use as the main technical means processing personal computer information. In large organizations, along with a personal computer, the technical base of the information system may include a mainframe or supercomputer. In addition, the technical implementation of an information system in itself will not mean anything if the role of the person for whom the information produced is intended and without whom its receipt and presentation is impossible is not taken into account.

It is necessary to understand the difference between computers and information systems. Computers equipped with specialized software are the technical basis and tool for information systems. An information system is unthinkable without personnel interacting with computers and telecommunications.

The development of information systems can be considered:

1. From the standpoint of the development of technology itself, the emergence of a new technical base that generates new information needs.

2. From the point of view of improving the automated information systems (AIS) themselves.

The first aspect involves two stages: one - before the advent of computers, associated with the names of the inventors of the first computing devices, such as B. Pascal, P.L. Chebyshev, Ch. Babbage and others; the second - with the development of computers.

The first generation of computers (1950s) was built on the basis of vacuum tubes and was represented by the following models: ENIAC, MESM, BESM-1, M-20, Ural-1, Minsk-1. All these machines were large, consumed a large number of electricity, had low speed, small memory capacity and low reliability. They were not used in economic calculations.

The second generation of computers (1960s) was based on semiconductors and transistors: BESM-6, Ural-14, Minsk-32. The use of transistor elements as an elemental base made it possible to reduce electricity consumption, reduce the size of individual computer elements and the entire machine, the memory capacity increased, the first displays appeared, etc. These computers have already been used to solve economic problems.

The third generation of computers (1970s) was based on small integrated circuits. Its representatives are the IBM 360 (USA), a number of unified system computers (ES computers), and small family machines from SM I to SM IV. With the help of integrated circuits, it was possible to reduce the size of computers, increase their reliability and performance.
The fourth generation of computers (1980s) was based on large-scale integrated circuits (LSI) and was represented by the IBM 370 (USA), EC-1045, EC-1065, etc. They were a number of software-compatible machines on a single element base, a single design and technical basis, with a single structure, a single software system, a single unified set of universal devices. Personal computers (PCs) have become widespread, and they began to appear in 1976 in the USA (An Apple). They did not require special premises, installation of programming systems, used high-level languages ​​and communicated with the user interactively.

Currently, during the period of informatization, computers are being built based on ultra-large-scale integrated circuits (VLSI). They have enormous computing power and are relatively low cost. They can be represented not as one machine, but as a computing system connecting the core of the system, which is presented in the form of a supercomputer, and a PC on the periphery.

This allows you to significantly reduce the cost of human labor and effectively use machine labor. The main trend in the development of AIS is the constant desire for improvement. It is achieved through the improvement of hardware and software, which gives rise to new information needs and leads to the improvement of information systems.

Let us characterize the generations of information systems.

    The first generation of AIS (1960-1970) was built on the basis of computer centers according to the principle of “one enterprise - one processing center.”

    The second generation of AIS (1970-1980) is characterized by a transition to IS decentralization. Information technologies penetrate into departments and services of an enterprise. Packages and decentralized databases appeared, and two- and three-level models for organizing data processing systems began to be introduced.

    Third generation of AIS (1980-early 1990s): characterized by a massive transition to distributed network processing based on personal computers with the unification of disparate jobs into a single IS.

    The fourth generation of AIS is characterized by a combination of centralized processing at the upper level with distributed processing at the lower level. There is a trend towards a return in large and medium-sized enterprises to the use of powerful computers in IS as the central node of the system and cheap network terminals (workstations).

    Modern information systems at enterprises are created on the basis of local and distributed computer networks, new technologies for making management decisions, new methods for solving professional problems of end users, etc.

    The history of the development of information systems and the purposes of their use at different periods is as follows (Table 1).

    Table 1 – History of the development of information systems and the purposes of their use at different periods

    Period of time

    Information Use Concept

    Type of information systems

    Purpose of use

    1950 - 1960

    Paper flow of settlement documents

    Information systems for processing settlement documents on electromechanical accounting machines

    Increasing the speed of document processing

    Simplifying invoice processing and payroll processing

    1960 - 1970

    Basic assistance in preparing reports

    Management information systems for production information

    Speeding up the reporting process

    1970 - 1980

    Management control of sales (sales)

    Decision support systems

    Systems for senior management

    Sampling the most rational solution

    1980 - 2000

    Information is a strategic resource that provides a competitive advantage

    Strategic Information Systems

    Automated offices

    Survival and prosperity of the company

    The first information systems appeared in the 50s. During these years, they were intended for processing bills and payroll, and were implemented on electromechanical accounting machines. This led to some reduction in costs and time for preparing paper documents.

    60s are marked by a change in attitude towards information systems. The information obtained from them began to be used for periodic reporting on many parameters. Today, organizations needed general-purpose computer equipment capable of serving many functions, and not just processing invoices and calculating salaries, as was previously the case.

    In the 70s - early 80s. Information systems are beginning to be widely used as a means of management control, supporting and accelerating the decision-making process.

    By the end of the 80s. The concept of using information systems is changing again. They become a strategic source of information and are used at all levels of any organization. Information systems of this period, providing the necessary information on time, help the organization achieve success in its activities, create new goods and services, find new markets, secure worthy partners, organize the production of products at a low price, and much more.

    The processes that ensure the operation of an information system for any purpose can be roughly represented in the form of a diagram consisting of blocks:

    – input of information from external or internal sources;

    – processing of input information and presenting it in a convenient form;

    – output of information for presentation to consumers or transfer to another system;

    – Feedback- this is information processed by people of a given organization to correct input information.

    An information system is defined by the following properties:

    – any information system can be analyzed, built and managed on the basis of general principles for building systems;

    – the information system is dynamic and developing;

    – when building an information system, it is necessary to use systems approach;

    – the output of the information system is the information on the basis of which decisions are made;

    – the information system should be perceived as a human-computer information processing system.

    Currently, there is an opinion about an information system as a system implemented using computer technology. Although in the general case, an information system can also be understood in a non-computer version.

    To understand the operation of an information system, it is necessary to understand the essence of the problems that it solves, as well as the organizational processes in which it is included. So, for example, when determining the possibility of a computer information system to support decision-making, the structure of the management tasks being solved should be taken into account; the level of the company's management hierarchy at which the decision must be made; whether the problem being solved belongs to one or another functional area of ​​the business; type of information technology used.


    Figure 1 – Information system structure

    The technology of working in a computer information system is understandable to a specialist in the non-computer field and can be successfully used to control processes professional activity and management of them.

    The introduction of information systems can contribute to:

    obtaining more rational options for solving management problems through the introduction of mathematical methods and intelligent systems, etc.;

    freeing workers from routine work due to its automation;

    ensuring the reliability of information;

    replacing paper storage media with magnetic disks or tape, which leads to a more rational organization of information processing on a computer and a reduction in the volume of documents on paper;

    improving the structure of information flows and the document flow system in the company;

    reducing costs for the production of products and services;

    providing consumers with unique services;

    finding new market niches;

    tying buyers and suppliers to the company by providing them with various discounts and services.

    The role of the management structure in the information system

    General provisions

    The creation and use of an information system for any organization is aimed at solving the following problems.

    1. The structure of the information system and its functional purpose must correspond to the goals facing the organization. For example, in a commercial company - effective business; in a state enterprise - solving social and economic problems.

    2. The information system must be controlled by people, understood and used in accordance with basic social and ethical principles.

    3. Production of reliable, reliable, timely and systematized information.

    Building an information system can be compared to building a house. Bricks, nails, cement and other materials placed together do not make a house. A project, land management, construction, etc. are needed for a house to appear.

    Similarly, to create and use an information system, you must first understand the structure, functions and policies of the organization, the goals of management and decisions made, and the capabilities of computer technology. The information system is part of the organization, and the key elements of any organization are the structure and management bodies, standard procedures, personnel, subculture.

    Construction of an information system should begin with an analysis of the organization's management structure.

    2 Technology for creating expert systems. Identifying the Problem Area

    When developing expert systems, the rapid prototype concept is often used. Its essence is as follows: at first, it is not an expert system that is created, but its prototype, which must solve a narrow range of problems and require little time for its development. The prototype must demonstrate the suitability of the future expert system for a given subject area, verify the correct encoding of facts, connections and reasoning strategies of the expert. It also provides an opportunity for the knowledge engineer to involve the expert in an active role in the development of the expert system. The size of the prototype is several dozen rules.

    Today, a certain technology for developing expert systems has emerged, which includes 6 stages.

    Stage 1. Identification. Problems that need to be solved are identified. The development of a prototype expert system is planned, the necessary resources (time, people, computers, etc.), sources of knowledge (books, additional specialists, methods), available similar expert systems, goals (dissemination of experience, automation of routine actions, etc.) are determined. .), classes of problems to be solved, etc. The identification stage is the introduction and training of the development team. Average duration is 1-2 weeks.

    At the same stage of expert system development, knowledge extraction takes place. A knowledge engineer helps an expert identify and structure the knowledge necessary for the operation of an expert system using in various ways: text analysis, dialogues, expert games, lectures, discussions, interviews, observation and others. Knowledge extraction is the knowledge engineer's obtaining a more complete understanding of the subject area and decision-making methods in it. Average duration is 1-3 months.

    Stage 2. Conceptualization. The structure of the acquired knowledge about the subject area is revealed. The following are determined: terminology, a list of main concepts and their attributes, the structure of input and output information, decision-making strategy, etc. Conceptualization is the development of an informal description of knowledge about a subject area in the form of a graph, table, diagram or text that reflects the main concepts and relationships between the concepts of the subject area. The average duration of the stage is 2-4 weeks.

    Stage 3. Formalization. At the formalization stage, all key concepts and relationships identified at the conceptualization stage are expressed in some formal language proposed (selected) by the knowledge engineer. Here he determines whether the available tools are suitable for solving the problem under consideration, or whether the choice of other tools is necessary, or whether original developments are required. The average duration is 1-2 months.

    Stage 4. Implementation. A prototype of an expert system is created, including a knowledge base and other subsystems. At this stage, the following tools are used: programming in ordinary languages ​​(Pascal, C, etc.), programming in specialized languages ​​used in artificial intelligence problems (LISP, FRL, SmallTalk, etc.), etc. The fourth stage of development of expert systems in to some extent is key, since this is where creation takes place software package, demonstrating the viability of the approach as a whole. The average duration is 1-2 months.

    Stage 5. Testing. The prototype is checked for the convenience and adequacy of input-output interfaces, the effectiveness of the control strategy, the quality of test examples, and the correctness of the knowledge base. Testing is identifying errors in the chosen approach, identifying errors in the implementation of the prototype, and also developing recommendations for fine-tuning the system to a production version.

    Stage 6. Trial operation. The suitability of the expert system for end users is verified. Based on the results of this stage, significant modification of the expert system may be required.

    The process of developing an expert system is not reduced to a strict sequence of the stages listed above. During the course of work, it is necessary to repeatedly return to earlier stages and revise the decisions made there.

    The stage of identifying the problem area is determining the requirements for the developed ES, the contours of the problem area under consideration (objects, goals, subgoals, factors), allocating resources for the development of the ES.

    The problem area identification stage includes determining the purpose and scope of the expert system, selecting experts and a group of knowledge engineers, allocating resources, setting and parameterizing the problems to be solved.

    The start of work on creating an expert system is initiated by company leaders. Typically, the need to develop an expert system is associated with difficulties for decision makers, which affects the efficiency of the problem area. Typically, the purpose of an expert system is related to one of the following areas:

    — training and consultation of inexperienced users;

    — dissemination and use of the unique experience of experts;

    — automation of the work of decision-making experts;

    — optimization of problem solving, generation and testing of hypotheses.

    After preliminary definition of the contours of the developed expert system, knowledge engineers, together with experts, carry out a more detailed formulation of problems and parameterization of the system. The main parameters of the problem area include the following:

    — class of tasks to be solved (interpretation, diagnostics, correction, forecasting, planning, design, monitoring, control);

    — criteria for the effectiveness of the results of solving problems (minimizing the use of resources, improving the quality of products and services, accelerating capital turnover, etc.);

    — criteria for the effectiveness of the problem solving process (increasing the accuracy of decisions made, taking into account a larger number of factors, calculating a larger number of alternative options, adaptability to changes in the problem area and information needs of users, reducing decision-making time);

    — goals of the tasks being solved (choosing from alternatives, for example, choosing a supplier or synthesizing a value, for example, distributing a budget among items);

Annotation: The lecture discusses the main stages of IT development and provides initial information about the process approach in business management, enterprise architecture, and IT architecture.

Introduction

Effective management is currently a key requirement placed on organizations by the market. Constant changes (primarily in the economic environment) lead to a continuous search and improvement of business strategies and tactics.

On the other hand, in modern conditions It is impossible to achieve business efficiency without the use of IT, which, in turn, is rapidly and intensively developing precisely under the influence of the strategic and tactical tasks facing the business.

In fact, two mutually influencing revolutions took place simultaneously - in business and in IT, which resulted in a sharp increase in demand for services in the field of strategic management of information systems.

Strategic management of information systems is a set of theoretical foundations and methods that provide a holistic, process-oriented approach to making management decisions aimed at increasing the efficiency of ownership and development of information systems to achieve the business goals of organizations and create new competitive advantages. Studying these methods allows you to:

  1. analyze and formulate indicators of the effectiveness of the use of information technologies to organize strategic and operational management of their development;
  2. develop strategies for the development of information systems;
  3. organize an IT service and manage its activities;
  4. effectively manage a portfolio of IT projects;
  5. rationally organize interaction with vendors and partners;
  6. manage projects in the field of IT consulting;
  7. organize the transition to outsourcing and monitor its implementation.

The need to train specialists of this profile is determined by the objective needs of business and public administration. Modern business requires a strategy for managing the development of information systems, which would provide support for the implementation of the development strategy of the business itself, and managers capable of developing and implementing appropriate plans.

Note that there is currently a qualitative expansion of the concept and term “system” occurring in international committees and IT-oriented professional communities. At the present stage, a system is understood as “a complex consisting of processes, hardware and software, devices and personnel, with the ability to satisfy established needs or goals.” Note that this definition is quite close to the definition of the concept " automated system", given in GOST 34.003-90.

Information technology. A set of standards and guidelines for automated systems. Terms and definitions – “in the process of operation automated system is a set of automation tools, organizational, methodological and technological documents and specialists who use them in the course of their professional activities."

An information system is a system designed “for collecting, transmitting, processing, storing and issuing information to consumers and consisting of the following main components:

  1. software;
  2. Information Support;
  3. technical means;
  4. service staff.

The standards also contain a clear definition of the concept of “IT system,” so in GOST R ISO/IEC TO 10000-1-99, an information technology system is defined as “a set of information technology resources that provides services via one or more interfaces.”

1.1. Revolution in business - transition to a process approach

The current state of the economy is characterized by a transition from the traditional functional industrial model of Adam Smith to the process model.

Functional model is based on the premise that workers are not highly skilled, so the tasks they are offered should be very simple. Moreover, Adam Smith argued that people work most effectively when they are given just one job to do that they understand well. Thus, functional model involves breaking down into simple tasks, executed according to a conveyor system with clearly regulated routes, as a rule, within the structural divisions of the organization. From here follow the basic rules of the game: hierarchical organizational structures, conveyor technologies, management by structural elements (divisions), interaction through structural elements of a higher level, etc.

The main disadvantages of the functional approach are the following:

  • the difficulty of linking the simplest tasks into technology that produces a real product or service;
  • lack of a holistic description of such technology;
  • lack of responsibility for the final result;
  • high costs for useless work: coordination, interaction, control, etc.;
  • lack of customer focus.

The process approach declares a shift in emphasis from the management of individual structural elements to the management of end-to-end business processes that link together the activities of these structural elements, permeates the organizational structure horizontally and assumes different versions(and complex execution routes) of processes. In this case, a business process is understood as a set of actions that produces a result (product or service) that is valuable to the client. Note that the client can be either an external customer or another division of the organization.

An example of a business process is receiving goods upon order. Such activities include receiving an application, checking the availability of goods, issuing an invoice, monitoring payment and delivering the goods. All these components are certainly important and necessary, but for the client in themselves they do not matter (no matter how effective they are), he is only interested in the holistic result - receiving the goods High Quality and as quickly as possible.

It is business processes that implement business strategy, while answering the questions: who, what, when, why, where and how. It is business processes that provide integration organization, and also form the basis for its analysis in a variety of aspects (economic, organizational, qualitative, quantitative, etc.) to improve decision-making, control, coordination and monitoring of its various parts.

There are quite a lot of definitions of the concept of a business process; here are some of them.

  • A sustainable, purposeful set of interrelated activities that, using a specific technology, transforms inputs into outputs that are valuable to the consumer (ISO 9000: 2000 standard).
  • A set of different types of activities in which one or more types of resources are used “at the input”, and as a result, at the output a product is created that is valuable to the consumer (Hammer, Champy).
  • A structured finite set of activities designed to produce a specific service (product) for a specific customer or market (Davenport).
  • Many internal steps (types) of activity, starting with one or more inputs and ending with the creation of products needed by the client (simply a client or a process occurring in the external environment of the company) and satisfying him in terms of cost, durability, service and quality (Oykhman, Popov).
  • A logical series of interdependent activities that use enterprise resources to create or produce, in the foreseeable or measurably predictable future, a customer-beneficial output, such as a product or service (Zinder).
  • A horizontal hierarchy of internal and interdependent functional actions, the ultimate goal of which is the release of a product or its individual components (Vernikov).
  • Processes that are carried out in an enterprise and can be identified throughout the value chain, they are aimed directly at achieving success in the market and are characterized by measurable input information, value creation and measurable output information (Girhake).
  • A related set of functions, during the execution of which certain resources are consumed, and a product is created (a tangible or intangible result of human labor: an object, a service, a scientific discovery, an idea) that is valuable to the consumer (Kalashyan, Kalyanov).

All these definitions emphasize the differences between the process approach and the functional one. The novelty in the business process is as follows:

  • Functions were clearly assigned to a specific department, and business processes permeated all departments.
  • The category "client-producer" is introduced. At the same time, the client-manufacturer relationship extends to both external and internal clients/manufacturers. Each unit of an organization typically has customer-manufacturer and manufacturer-customer relationships with several other units. The goal of each department is to achieve maximum customer satisfaction. The consequence is the direct focus of all activities on achieving success in the market.
  • Each value created is measurable, ensuring transparency of the process. The criteria may be output income minus input costs, process cost, customer satisfaction.

1.2 The evolution of the IT industry and the main trends in its development

In the history of IT development, three main stages can be clearly distinguished. The first stage, which began in our country in the mid-50s, is associated with the emergence of the first computers. They were used in full accordance with their name - exclusively as high-performance tools for complex calculations, for solving computational problems using all kinds of mathematical methods. There was no concept of standard software yet, and all programs implementing computational methods were created by the first programmers in machine code. These programs were used in design and engineering activities, in modeling complex stochastic processes, in many areas requiring the use of mathematical methods. In short, we can say that computers processed numbers. It is clear that computers had nothing to do with the main activities of the organizations.

The second stage of IT development, which covered a significant period of time - about 30 years from the mid-60s to the early 90s, can be characterized as the period of the emergence and development of automated control systems. In many ways, the beginning of this stage was facilitated by the activity of a number of outstanding scientists and the persistence of Academician V. Glushkov, who managed to convince members of the Politburo that cybernetics must be rescued from the position of pseudoscience. The main argument, albeit not without guile (what could be done?), was the slogan of building a nationwide automated system for effectively managing the national economy and thereby accelerating the construction of a communist society.

Design institutes, main computing centers of ministries and large enterprises began to be created in the country. The tasks of developing and implementing automated control systems are included in the national economic plans; for some of the systems, party and government decrees are issued. Three ministries: the Ministry of Radio Industry, the Ministry of Instrumentation and the Ministry of Electronic Industry are engaged in the creation and production of computer equipment and automated control systems. The systems are actually used in all industries for data processing and reporting, including government reporting. But, despite its name - automated control systems- they have never controlled anything, if we leave out the automated control systems of technological processes. Computer centers were considered by managers as some kind of service units filled with specific engineering and technical personnel. These centers were completely separated from the main activities of the organizations, whose employees were engaged in their work, to the support of which the automated control system, with rare exceptions, had nothing to do, and there was no economic effect from their work, although it was always calculated. The economy had to be efficient. It is a known fact that the total annual economic effect from the implementation of automated control systems in the country exceeded the volume of GDP.

And only in the mid-90s, the third stage of development of the IT industry began and continues to this day, which can be called revolutionary. IT began to invade the core activities of organizations - they came to the workplaces of managers and employees. Their role has changed radically: from serving it has turned into strategic. IT has become a source of new competitive advantages and a means of maintaining them. IT has also become the source of the emergence of fundamentally new types of business and new views on corporate governance methods and the organization of companies operating in global markets in conditions of global competition.

Examples of new types of business include: e-commerce and the emergence of virtual companies, the gradual disappearance of filters in the form of channels for promoting products and services between producers and consumers. For example, 90% of Cisco Systems products are sold through corporate Internet– portal. Companies strive to retain only strategically important functions and intellectual capital, outsourcing production, sales, logistics, marketing and other functions to various partners specializing in relevant areas. For example, one of the leaders in the global IT market, IBM, stopped the production of computer equipment, transferring it to partner companies in Southeast Asia and reserving only the design and creation of new equipment, i.e. intelligence Plus, as a result of the acquisition of the consulting division of Price Waterhouse, IBM Global Solutions was created, which became the largest systems integrator providing comprehensive intellectual services in the field of management consulting and system integration, along with two other leaders in this market, EDS (Electronic Data Systems) and Accenture. Similar trends are visible in Russia. In general, it must be said that nothing has happened in the Russian IT market that has not already happened in the world. This is a unique feature of this segment of the economy and this is good news, since the Russian IT market is developing at a record pace of 20-25% per year and this rate continues to persist. For comparison, we point out that according to IDC, growth rates in the United States decreased to 6%, in Western Europe to 2%, and only in Central and Eastern Europe they increased to 16% (Czech Republic, Hungary).

The main purposes of using IT, according to the consulting company A.T. Kearney are:

  • transformation of the organization;
  • penetration into new markets;
  • introduction of new products and services
  • accelerating response to market changes;
  • cost reduction;
  • improving internal operations;
  • improving the quality of service.

Despite the IT revolution, managers are not satisfied with the state of affairs with the use of IT:

  • IT organization is too complex;
  • development of business-critical functions is often delayed;
  • IT costs increase even as profits fall.

Here are the major challenges facing organizations around the world today:

  • fragmented IT applications and data;
  • multi-tiered systems built on different platforms;
  • lack of IT integration with business;
  • weakness of IT management processes.

McKinsey, a recognized leader in the strategic consulting market, analyzed the results of 500 large IT projects around the world.

It turned out that only 16% can be considered successful. What is a successful project? This is a project that was completed within the planned time frame, did not exceed the allocated budget, and produced exactly the results that were expected, and not those that turned out during the implementation. Most projects were twice over schedule and 80% over budget. In Russia these parameters are significantly higher.

Data, etc.) is necessary when determining the optimal architecture of a corporate information system, i.e., answers the question “How to do it?”

  • Strategic IT consulting, first of all, answers the question “What to do?” and, thus, occupies a special place in the life cycle of consulting services.

    • Numerous types of IT consulting are discussed in detail in Chapter 6.

    Ideally, the first to come to the organization are strategic IT consultants who will help formulate the role of IT in its life, in business development and determine directions for development, thereby defining a vision of the future state of IT and the transition management organization. This means finding the answer to the question, what kind of house do we want to live in?

    Then information systems architects should come and create a project for the future house and answer the question of how exactly it should be built, from what blocks and components, how and by what means they should be integrated into unified system. And only then will the actual builders be needed to implement the selected IT solutions.

    In real practice, as a rule, everything happens in the reverse order. First, individual IT solutions are implemented, then the need arises to integrate them, and then it turns out that what happened does not meet the needs of the business or core activity, i.e., investments in IT did not produce the required effect. The direct consequence of this is the disillusionment of senior management and the discrediting of the role of IT in business development.